xdp-bench.8

.TH "xdp-bench" "8" "NOVEMBER 19, 2024" "V1.5.1" "A simple XDP benchmarking tool"

.SH "NAME"
XDP-bench \- a simple XDP benchmarking tool
.SH "SYNOPSIS"
.PP
XDP-bench is a benchmarking utility for exercising the different operation modes
of XDP. It is intended to be a simple program demonstrating the various
operating modes; these include dropping packets, hairpin forwarding (using the
\fIXDP_TX\fP return code), and redirection using the various in-kernel packet
redirection facilities.

.PP
The drop and TX modes support various options to control whether packet data is
touched (read or written) before being dropped or transmitted. The redirection
modes support using the simple ifindex-based \fIbpf_redirect\fP helper, the
\fIbpf_redirect_map\fP helper using a cpumap as its target, \fIbpf_redirect_map\fP using
a devmap as its target, and the devmap's broadcast mode which allows redirecting
to multiple devices.

.PP
There is more information on the meaning of the output in both default (terse)
and extended output mode, in the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "Running xdp-bench"
.PP
The syntax for running xdp-bench is:

.RS
.nf
\fCUsage: xdp-bench COMMAND [options]

COMMAND can be one of:
       drop           - Drop all packets on an interface
       pass           - Pass all packets to the network stack
       tx             - Transmit packets back out on an interface (hairpin forwarding)
       redirect       - XDP redirect using the bpf_redirect() helper
       redirect-cpu   - XDP CPU redirect using BPF_MAP_TYPE_CPUMAP
       redirect-map   - XDP redirect using BPF_MAP_TYPE_DEVMAP
       redirect-multi - XDP multi-redirect using BPF_MAP_TYPE_DEVMAP and the BPF_F_BROADCAST flag
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
Each command, and its options are explained below. Or use \fIxdp\-bench COMMAND
\-\-help\fP to see the options for each command.

.SH "The DROP command"
.PP
In this mode, \fIxdp\-bench\fP installs an XDP program on an interface that simply
drops all packets. There are options to control what to do with the packet
before dropping it (touch the packet data or not), as well as which statistics
to gather. This is a basic benchmark for the baseline (best-case) performance of
XDP on an interface.

.PP
The syntax for the \fIdrop\fP command is:

.PP
\fIxdp\-bench drop [options] <ifname>\fP

.PP
Where \fI<ifname>\fP is the name of the interface the XDP program should be
installed on.

.PP
The supported options are:

.SS "-p, --packet-operation <ACTION>"
.PP
Specify which operation should be taken on the packet before dropping it. The
following actions are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCno-touch		- Drop the packet without touching the packet data
read-data		- Read a field in the packet header before dropping
parse-ip		- Parse the IP header field before dropping
swap-macs		- Swap the source and destination MAC addresses before dropping
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
Whether to touch the packet before dropping it can have a significant
performance impact as this requires bringing packet data into the CPU cache (and
flushing it back out if writing).

.PP
The default for this option is \fIno\-touch\fP.

.SS "-l, --load-mode <MODE>"
.PP
Specify which mechanism xdp-bench should use to load (and store) the packet data.
The following modes are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCdpa		- Use traditional Direct Packet Access from the XDP program
load-bytes	- Use the xdp_load_bytes() and xdp_store_bytes() helper functions
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
This can be used to benchmark the various packet access modes supported by the
kernel.

.PP
The default for this option is \fIdpa\fP.

.SS "-r, --rxq-stats"
.PP
If set, the XDP program will also gather statistics on which receive queue index
each packet was received on. This is displayed in the extended output mode along
with per-CPU data (which, depending on the hardware configuration may or may not
be equivalent).

.SS "-i, --interval <SECONDS>"
.PP
Set the polling interval for collecting all statistics and displaying them to
the output. The unit of interval is in seconds.

.SS "-e, --extended"
.PP
Start xdp-bench in "extended" output mode. If not set, xdp-bench will start in
"terse" mode. The output mode can be switched by hitting C-$\ while the program
is running. See also the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "-m, --mode"
.PP
Selects the XDP program mode (native or skb). Note that native XDP mode is the
default, and loading the redirect program in skb manner is neither performant,
nor recommended. However, this option is useful if the interface driver lacks
native XDP support, or when simply testing the tool.

.SS "-v, --verbose"
.PP
Enable verbose logging. Supply twice to enable verbose logging from the
underlying \fIlibxdp\fP and \fIlibbpf\fP libraries.

.SS "--version"
.PP
Show the application version and exit.

.SS "-h, --help"
.PP
Display a summary of the available options

.SH "The PASS command"
.PP
In this mode, \fIxdp\-bench\fP installs an XDP program on an interface that passes
all packets to the network stack after processing them (returning \fIXDP_PASS\fP).
There are options to control what to do with the packet before passing it
(touch the packet data or not), as well as which statistics to gather. This is a
basic benchmark for the overhead of installing an XDP program on an interface
while still running the regular network stack.

.PP
The syntax for the \fIpass\fP command is:

.PP
\fIxdp\-bench pass [options] <ifname>\fP

.PP
Where \fI<ifname>\fP is the name of the interface the XDP program should be
installed on.

.PP
The supported options are:

.SS "-p, --packet-operation <ACTION>"
.PP
Specify which operation should be taken on the packet before passing it. The
following actions are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCno-touch		- Pass the packet without touching the packet data
read-data		- Read a field in the packet header before passing
parse-ip		- Parse the IP header field before passing
swap-macs		- Swap the source and destination MAC addresses before passing
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
The default for this option is \fIno\-touch\fP.

.SS "-l, --load-mode <MODE>"
.PP
Specify which mechanism xdp-bench should use to load (and store) the packet data.
The following modes are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCdpa		- Use traditional Direct Packet Access from the XDP program
load-bytes	- Use the xdp_load_bytes() and xdp_store_bytes() helper functions
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
This can be used to benchmark the various packet access modes supported by the
kernel.

.PP
The default for this option is \fIdpa\fP.

.SS "-r, --rxq-stats"
.PP
If set, the XDP program will also gather statistics on which receive queue index
each packet was received on. This is displayed in the extended output mode along
with per-CPU data (which, depending on the hardware configuration may or may not
be equivalent).

.SS "-i, --interval <SECONDS>"
.PP
Set the polling interval for collecting all statistics and displaying them to
the output. The unit of interval is in seconds.

.SS "-e, --extended"
.PP
Start xdp-bench in "extended" output mode. If not set, xdp-bench will start in
"terse" mode. The output mode can be switched by hitting C-$\ while the program
is running. See also the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "-m, --mode"
.PP
Selects the XDP program mode (native or skb). Note that native XDP mode is the
default, and loading the redirect program in skb manner is neither performant,
nor recommended. However, this option is useful if the interface driver lacks
native XDP support, or when simply testing the tool.

.SS "-v, --verbose"
.PP
Enable verbose logging. Supply twice to enable verbose logging from the
underlying \fIlibxdp\fP and \fIlibbpf\fP libraries.

.SS "--version"
.PP
Show the application version and exit.

.SS "-h, --help"
.PP
Display a summary of the available options

.SH "The TX command"
.PP
In this mode, \fIxdp\-bench\fP installs an XDP program on an interface that performs
so-called "hairpin forwarding", which means each packet is transmitted back out
the same interface (using the \fIXDP_TX\fP return code).. There are options to
control what to do with the packet before transmitting it (touch the packet data
or not), as well as which statistics to gather.

.PP
The syntax for the \fItx\fP command is:

.PP
\fIxdp\-bench tx [options] <ifname>\fP

.PP
Where \fI<ifname>\fP is the name of the interface the XDP program should be
installed on.

.PP
The supported options are:

.SS "-p, --packet-operation <ACTION>"
.PP
Specify which operation should be taken on the packet before transmitting it. The
following actions are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCno-touch		- Transmit the packet without touching the packet data
read-data		- Read a field in the packet header before transmitting
parse-ip		- Parse the IP header field before transmitting
swap-macs		- Swap the source and destination MAC addresses before transmitting
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
To allow the packet to be successfully transmitted back to the sender, the MAC
addresses have to be swapped, so that the source MAC matches the network device.
However, there is a performance overhead in doing swapping, so this option
allows this function to be turned off.

.PP
The default for this option is \fIswap\-macs\fP.

.SS "-l, --load-mode <MODE>"
.PP
Specify which mechanism xdp-bench should use to load (and store) the packet data.
The following modes are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCdpa		- Use traditional Direct Packet Access from the XDP program
load-bytes	- Use the xdp_load_bytes() and xdp_store_bytes() helper functions
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
This can be used to benchmark the various packet access modes supported by the
kernel.

.PP
The default for this option is \fIdpa\fP.

.SS "-r, --rxq-stats"
.PP
If set, the XDP program will also gather statistics on which receive queue index
each packet was received on. This is displayed in the extended output mode along
with per-CPU data (which, depending on the hardware configuration may or may not
be equivalent).

.SS "-i, --interval <SECONDS>"
.PP
Set the polling interval for collecting all statistics and displaying them to
the output. The unit of interval is in seconds.

.SS "-e, --extended"
.PP
Start xdp-bench in "extended" output mode. If not set, xdp-bench will start in
"terse" mode. The output mode can be switched by hitting C-$\ while the program
is running. See also the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "-m, --mode"
.PP
Selects the XDP program mode (native or skb). Note that native XDP mode is the
default, and loading the redirect program in skb manner is neither performant,
nor recommended. However, this option is useful if the interface driver lacks
native XDP support, or when simply testing the tool.

.SS "-v, --verbose"
.PP
Enable verbose logging. Supply twice to enable verbose logging from the
underlying \fIlibxdp\fP and \fIlibbpf\fP libraries.

.SS "--version"
.PP
Show the application version and exit.

.SS "-h, --help"
.PP
Display a summary of the available options

.SH "The REDIRECT command"
.PP
In this mode, \fIxdp\-bench\fP sets up packet redirection between the two
interfaces supplied on the command line using the \fIbpf_redirect\fP BPF helper
triggered on packet reception on the ingress interface.

.PP
The syntax for the \fIredirect\fP command is:

.PP
\fIxdp\-bench redirect [options] <ifname_in> <ifname_out>\fP

.PP
Where \fI<ifname_in>\fP is the name of the input interface from where packets will
be redirect to the output interface \fI<ifname_out>\fP.

.PP
The supported options are:

.SS "-l, --load-mode <MODE>"
.PP
Specify which mechanism xdp-bench should use to load (and store) the packet data.
The following modes are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCdpa		- Use traditional Direct Packet Access from the XDP program
load-bytes	- Use the xdp_load_bytes() and xdp_store_bytes() helper functions
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
This can be used to benchmark the various packet access modes supported by the
kernel.

.PP
The default for this option is \fIdpa\fP.

.SS "-i, --interval <SECONDS>"
.PP
Set the polling interval for collecting all statistics and displaying them to
the output. The unit of interval is in seconds.

.SS "-s, --stats"
.PP
Enable statistics for successful redirection. This option comes with a per
packet tracing overhead, for recording all successful redirections.

.SS "-e, --extended"
.PP
Start xdp-bench in "extended" output mode. If not set, xdp-bench will start in
"terse" mode. The output mode can be switched by hitting C-$\ while the program
is running. See also the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "-m, --mode"
.PP
Selects the XDP program mode (native or skb). Note that native XDP mode is the
default, and loading the redirect program in skb manner is neither performant,
nor recommended. However, this option is useful if the interface driver lacks
native XDP support, or when simply testing the tool.

.SS "-v, --verbose"
.PP
Enable verbose logging. Supply twice to enable verbose logging from the
underlying \fIlibxdp\fP and \fIlibbpf\fP libraries.

.SS "--version"
.PP
Show the application version and exit.

.SS "-h, --help"
.PP
Display a summary of the available options

.SH "The REDIRECT-CPU command"
.PP
In this mode, \fIxdp\-bench\fP sets up packet redirection using the
\fIbpf_redirect_map\fP BPF helper triggered on packet reception on the ingress
interface, using a cpumap as its target. Hence, this tool can be used to
redirect packets on an interface from one CPU to another. In addition to this,
the tool then supports redirecting the packet to another output device when it
is processed on the target CPU.

.PP
The syntax for the \fIredirect\-cpu\fP command is:

.PP
\fIxdp\-bench redirect\-cpu [options] <ifname> \-c 0 ... \-c N\fP

.PP
Where \fI<ifname>\fP is the name of the input interface from where packets will be
redirect to the target CPU list specified using \fI\-c\fP.

.PP
The supported options are:

.SS "-c, --cpu <CPU>"
.PP
Specify a possible target CPU index. This option must be passed at least once,
and can be passed multiple times to specify a list of CPUs. Which CPU is chosen
for a given packet depends on the value of the \fI\-\-program\-mode\fP option,
described below.

.SS "-p, --program-mode <MODE>"
.PP
Specify a program that embeds a predefined policy deciding how packets are
redirected to different CPUs. The following options are available:

.RS
.nf
\fCno-touch		- Redirect without touching packet data
touch		- Read packet data before redirecting
round-robin	- Cycle between target CPUs in a round-robin fashion (for each packet)
l4-proto		- Choose the target CPU based on the layer-4 protocol of packet
l4-filter		- Like l4-proto, but drop UDP packets with destination port 9 (used by pktgen)
l4-hash		- Use source and destination IP hashing to pick target CPU
l4-sport		- Use modulo of source port to pick target CPU
l4-dport		- Use modulo of destination port to pick target CPU
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
The \fIno\-touch\fP and \fItouch\fP modes always redirect packets to the same CPU (the
first value supplied to \fI\-\-cpu\fP). The \fIround\-robin\fP and \fIl4\-hash\fP modes
distribute packets between all the CPUs supplied as \fI\-\-cpu\fP arguments, while
\fIl4\-proto\fP and \fIl4\-filter\fP send TCP and unrecognised packets to CPU index 0, UDP
packets to CPU index 1 and ICMP packets to CPU index 2 (where the index refers
to the order the actual CPUs are given on the command line).

.PP
The default for this option is \fIl4\-hash\fP.

.SS "-r --remote-action <ACTION>"
.PP
If this option is set, a separate program is installed into the cpumap, which
will be invoked on the remote CPU after the packet is processed there. The
action can be either \fIdrop\fP or \fIpass\fP which will drop the packet or pass it to
the regular networking stack, respectively. Or it can be \fIredirect\fP, which will
cause the packet to be redirected to another interface and transmitted out that
interface on the remote CPU. If this option is set to \fIredirect\fP the target
device must be specified using \fI\-\-redirect\-device\fP.

.PP
The default for this option is \fIdisabled\fP.

.SS "-r, --redirect-device <IFNAME>"
.PP
Specify the device to redirect the packet to when it is received on the target CPU.
Note that this option can only be specified with \fI\-\-remote\-action redirect\fP.

.SS "-q, --qsize <PACKETS>"
.PP
Set the queue size for the per-CPU cpumap ring buffer used for redirecting
packets from multiple CPUs to one CPU. The default value is 2048 packets.

.SS "-x, --stress-mode"
.PP
Stress the cpumap implementation by deallocating and reallocating the cpumap
ring buffer on each polling interval.

.SS "-i, --interval <SECONDS>"
.PP
Set the polling interval for collecting all statistics and displaying them to
the output. The unit of interval is in seconds.

.SS "-s, --stats"
.PP
Enable statistics for successful redirection. This option comes with a per
packet tracing overhead, for recording all successful redirections.

.SS "-e, --extended"
.PP
Start xdp-bench in "extended" output mode. If not set, xdp-bench will start in
"terse" mode. The output mode can be switched by hitting C-$\ while the program
is running. See also the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "-m, --mode"
.PP
Selects the XDP program mode (native or skb). Note that native XDP mode is the
default, and loading the redirect program in skb manner is neither performant,
nor recommended. However, this option is useful if the interface driver lacks
native XDP support, or when simply testing the tool.

.SS "-v, --verbose"
.PP
Enable verbose logging. Supply twice to enable verbose logging from the
underlying \fIlibxdp\fP and \fIlibbpf\fP libraries.

.SS "--version"
.PP
Show the application version and exit.

.SS "-h, --help"
.PP
Display a summary of the available options

.SH "The REDIRECT-MAP command"
.PP
In this mode, \fIxdp\-bench\fP sets up packet redirection between two interfaces
supplied on the command line using the \fIbpf_redirect_map()\fP BPF helper triggered
on packet reception on the ingress interface, using a devmap as its target.

.PP
The syntax for the \fIredirect\-map\fP command is:

.PP
\fIxdp\-bench redirect\-map [options] <ifname_in> <ifname_out>\fP

.PP
Where \fI<ifname_in>\fP is the name of the input interface from where packets will
be redirect to the output interface \fI<ifname_out>\fP.

.PP
The supported options are:

.SS "-X, --load-egress"
.PP
Load a program in the devmap entry used for redirection, so that it is invoked
after the packet is redirected to the target device, before it is transmitted
out of the output interface. The remote program will update the packet data so
its source MAC address matches the one of the destination interface.

.SS "-i, --interval <SECONDS>"
.PP
Set the polling interval for collecting all statistics and displaying them to
the output. The unit of interval is in seconds.

.SS "-s, --stats"
.PP
Enable statistics for successful redirection. This option comes with a per
packet tracing overhead, for recording all successful redirections.

.SS "-e, --extended"
.PP
Start xdp-bench in "extended" output mode. If not set, xdp-bench will start in
"terse" mode. The output mode can be switched by hitting C-$\ while the program
is running. See also the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "-m, --mode"
.PP
Selects the XDP program mode (native or skb). Note that native XDP mode is the
default, and loading the redirect program in skb manner is neither performant,
nor recommended. However, this option is useful if the interface driver lacks
native XDP support, or when simply testing the tool.

.SS "-v, --verbose"
.PP
Enable verbose logging. Supply twice to enable verbose logging from the
underlying \fIlibxdp\fP and \fIlibbpf\fP libraries.

.SS "--version"
.PP
Show the application version and exit.

.SS "-h, --help"
.PP
Display a summary of the available options

.SH "The REDIRECT-MULTI command"
.PP
In this mode, \fIxdp\-bench\fP sets up one-to-many packet redirection between
interfaces supplied on the command line, using the \fIbpf_redirect_map\fP BPF helper
triggered on packet reception on the ingress interface, using a devmap as its
target. The packet is broadcast to all output interfaces specified on the
command line, using devmap's packet broadcast feature.

.PP
The syntax for the \fIredirect\-multi\fP command is:

.PP
\fIxdp\-bench redirect\-multi [options] <ifname_in> <ifname_out1> ... <ifname_outN>\fP

.PP
Where \fI<ifname_in>\fP is the name of the input interface from where packets will
be redirect to one or many output interface(s).

.PP
The supported options are:

.SS "-X, --load-egress"
.PP
Load a program in the devmap entry used for redirection, so that it is invoked
after the packet is redirected to the target device, before it is transmitted
out of the output interface. The remote program will update the packet data so
its source MAC address matches the one of the destination interface.

.SS "-i, --interval <SECONDS>"
.PP
Set the polling interval for collecting all statistics and displaying them to
the output. The unit of interval is in seconds.

.SS "-s, --stats"
.PP
Enable statistics for successful redirection. This option comes with a per
packet tracing overhead, for recording all successful redirections.

.SS "-e, --extended"
.PP
Start xdp-bench in "extended" output mode. If not set, xdp-bench will start in
"terse" mode. The output mode can be switched by hitting C-$\ while the program
is running. See also the \fBOutput Format Description\fP section below.

.SS "-m, --mode"
.PP
Selects the XDP program mode (native or skb). Note that native XDP mode is the
default, and loading the redirect program in skb manner is neither performant,
nor recommended. However, this option is useful if the interface driver lacks
native XDP support, or when simply testing the tool.

.SS "-v, --verbose"
.PP
Enable verbose logging. Supply twice to enable verbose logging from the
underlying \fIlibxdp\fP and \fIlibbpf\fP libraries.

.SS "--version"
.PP
Show the application version and exit.

.SS "-h, --help"
.PP
Display a summary of the available options


.SH "Output Format Description"
.PP
By default, redirect success statistics are disabled, use \fI\-\-stats\fP to enable.
The terse output mode is default, extended output mode can be activated using
the \fI\-\-extended\fP command line option.

.PP
SIGQUIT (Ctrl + \\) can be used to switch the mode dynamically at runtime.

.PP
Terse mode displays at most the following fields:
.RS
.nf
\fCrx/s		Number of packets received per second
redir/s	Number of packets successfully redirected per second
err,drop/s	Aggregated count of errors per second (including dropped packets when not using the drop command)
xmit/s	Number of packets transmitted on the output device per second
\fP
.fi
.RE

.PP
Extended output mode displays at most the following fields:
.RS
.nf
\fCFIELD		  DESCRIPTION
receive	       Displays the number of packets received and errors encountered

                       Whenever an error or packet drop occurs, details of per CPU error
                       and drop statistics will be expanded inline in terse mode.
                                       pkt/s		- Packets received per second
                                       drop/s		- Packets dropped per second
                                       error/s		- Errors encountered per second
                                       redirect	- Displays the number of packets successfully redirected
                       Errors encountered are expanded under redirect_err field
                       Note that passing -s to enable it has a per packet overhead
                                       redir/s		- Packets redirected successfully per second


redirect_err	  Displays the number of packets that failed redirection

                       The errno is expanded under this field with per CPU count
                       The recognized errors are:
                                       EINVAL:		Invalid redirection
                                       ENETDOWN:	Device being redirected to is down
                                       EMSGSIZE:	Packet length too large for device
                                       EOPNOTSUPP:	Operation not supported
                                       ENOSPC:		No space in ptr_ring of cpumap kthread

                                       error/s		- Packets that failed redirection per second


enqueue to cpu N Displays the number of packets enqueued to bulk queue of CPU N
                       Expands to cpu:FROM->N to display enqueue stats for each CPU enqueuing to CPU N
                       Received packets can be associated with the CPU redirect program is enqueuing
                       packets to.
                                       pkt/s		- Packets enqueued per second from other CPU to CPU N
                                       drop/s		- Packets dropped when trying to enqueue to CPU N
                                       bulk-avg	- Average number of packets processed for each event


kthread	       Displays the number of packets processed in CPUMAP kthread for each CPU
                       Packets consumed from ptr_ring in kthread, and its xdp_stats (after calling
                       CPUMAP bpf prog) are expanded below this. xdp_stats are expanded as a total and
                       then per-CPU to associate it to each CPU's pinned CPUMAP kthread.
                                       pkt/s		- Packets consumed per second from ptr_ring
                                       drop/s		- Packets dropped per second in kthread
                                       sched		- Number of times kthread called schedule()

                       xdp_stats (also expands to per-CPU counts)
                                       pass/s		- XDP_PASS count for CPUMAP program execution
                                       drop/s		- XDP_DROP count for CPUMAP program execution
                                       redir/s		- XDP_REDIRECT count for CPUMAP program execution


xdp_exception	  Displays xdp_exception tracepoint events

                       This can occur due to internal driver errors, unrecognized
                       XDP actions and due to explicit user trigger by use of XDP_ABORTED
                       Each action is expanded below this field with its count
                                       hit/s		- Number of times the tracepoint was hit per second


devmap_xmit      Displays devmap_xmit tracepoint events

                       This tracepoint is invoked for successful transmissions on output
                       device but these statistics are not available for generic XDP mode,
                       hence they will be omitted from the output when using SKB mode
                                       xmit/s		- Number of packets that were transmitted per second
                                       drop/s		- Number of packets that failed transmissions per second
                                       drv_err/s	- Number of internal driver errors per second
                                       bulk-avg	- Average number of packets processed for each event
\fP
.fi
.RE

.SH "BUGS"
.PP
Please report any bugs on Github: \fIhttps://github.com/xdp-project/xdp-tools/issues\fP

.SH "AUTHOR"
.PP
Earlier xdp-redirect tools were written by Jesper Dangaard Brouer and John
Fastabend. They were then rewritten to support more features by Kumar Kartikeya
Dwivedi, who also ported them to xdp-tools together with Toke Høiland-Jørgensen.
This man page was written by Kumar Kartikeya Dwivedi and Toke Høiland-Jørgensen.